Lessons From The Outdoors

Friday, May 29, 2026

A Titillating Tale of Trail Hydration

"Hydrate or Die." -CamelBak slogan

A refreshing drink is something most people take for granted until they are hot, tired, and thirsty. What types of drink have hikers and backpackers reached for when they need to quench their thirst? The answer has shifted over the decades. A bottle of cool water has and will always reign supreme, but backpackers love to add other ingredients too.

This is no new phenomenon. The ancient Romans used a cocktail known as posca that was made by mixing wine, vinegar, and water or sometimes just vinegar with water. It was sometimes flavored with honey, herbs like coriander, or salt, and was known for its health benefits, including disinfecting water and preventing scurvy. It was the drink of soldiers and laborers, not the upper classes. So, it mirrors modern sports drinks as a primarily functional beverage.

By the time recreational backpacking and hiking emerged in the 19th century, the beverage options had greatly multiplied. Coffee and tea were probably the most common trail beverages in the latter 19th century as they were easy to carry and offered a caffeine boost.

Early campers sometimes carried apple cider vinegar, and a sweetener to mix into a refreshing electrolyte drink. It was often known as switchel. "Swanky," "switchy," and "haymaker’s punch" were other names because it was also popular among farmers and field workers. New Englanders often sweetened their switchel with molasses, while frontier settlers relied on honey, and Southern settlers used sorghum. Some would mix in a citrus juice like lemon or orange when available, however it could be prohibitively expensive. Another ingredient sometimes added was ginger to add an extra bite of flavor.

While historic farmers didn't understand the science of carbohydrates or electrolytes, their recipe was an accidental masterpiece of hydration science. The trace potassium from the apple cider vinegar, combined with the mineral-dense blackstrap molasses or maple syrup (high in potassium, magnesium, and calcium), paired with the sodium in water and anti-inflammatory ginger, created a natural carbohydrate-electrolyte drink perfectly designed to replenish what was lost in sweat.

Laura Ingalls Wilder, known for her tales of pioneer life, called it “ginger-water”. A historic recipe calls for one-quart cool water, 3/4 cup sugar, 1/3 cup apple cider vinegar, one tsp ground ginger. Switchel was most popular among those who could easily access the liquid ingredients, but many early camping guides recommend carrying one or more of the core ingredients including vinegar and ground ginger. These were believed to offer medicinal benefits too.

George Washington Sears, "Nessmuk", mentions these ingredients in Woodcraft and Camping (1884). While he prioritized coffee as a primary beverage, he often wrote about the medicinal value of ginger and sugar in water to settle the stomach and provide a quick energy boost during arduous treks.

Horace Kephart's Camping and Woodcraft (1906) often discussed the importance of acidic or spicy drinks to mask the taste of poor trail water. He also lists lemons as an essential for hot weather. He advises citric acid crystals as a substitute, but it should be noted that this would only add flavor not electrolytes. Alternatively, he recommends combining water, ginger, and molasses into a "ginger tea."

He adds another piece of advice in Camp Cookery to manage thirst in hot weather, "a much better thirst-quencher is a bit of raw onion carried in the mouth. One can go a long time without drinking if he has an onion with him; this also prevents one's lips from cracking in alkali dust."1

I'm not sure I could find Kephart's spartan advice of sucking on raw onion palatable. I have experimented with a few switchel recipes found online and they are quite nice, especially after a hike on a hot day. One can easily titrate the ingredients to adjust the tang to their unique taste sensibilities.

The 1911 Official Handbook for Boys recommended ginger and vinegar as essential medicinal and survival supplies. For generations, hikers relied on homemade mixtures. The twentieth century would gradually replace those kitchen remedies with factory-made powders.

In 1927, Edwin Perkins invented powdered Kool-Ade, a sugary fruit drink that required only the addition of water. For the first time, hikers could carry the flavor of fruit juice without carrying the fruit. Its low cost and shelf-stability meant it arrived just in time for the Great Depression which aided its flow into every American kitchen. Tang arrived in 1957 to compete against Kool-Ade but initially struggled to gain market traction until NASA used it on John Glenn's Mercury flight in 1962. Its association with astronauts made it a household staple throughout the 1960s and 70s.

These and other sugary fruit drink powders became widely available in the mid-20th century and were known affectionately as "bug juice" among scouts and summer campers. These products could be mixed with cold water and thus made for an easy trail-side energy boost. Tang and similar drink's real appeal wasn't nutrition. It was morale. It can turn even the foulest creek water into a refreshing drink. The lemon flavor of Wyler's was especially popular among hikers and is still remembered fondly today by those who grew up drinking it on the trail.

Dehydrated fruit juice became available slowly as freeze-dried techniques improved throughout the 1970s and 80s. Freeze-dried orange juice and lemonade products were available for a premium price from survival food companies like Perma-Pak. However, these early products did not see widespread success, due to their lackluster taste. Modern products such as True Citrus are more successful, with many hikers using them to add a burst of citrus flavor to trail meals and drinks.

The idea of electrolyte replacement is relatively recent. The history of electrolyte replacement in the field began in earnest during WWII when the U.S. and British militaries began systematically distributing salt packets to soldiers in hot regions. One of the earliest commercial electrolyte replacement drinks was developed by Dr. Martin J. Broussard in 1958. He was working as the head athletic trainer at Louisiana State University and developed Bengal Punch after noticing athletes losing salt on their uniforms. Bengal Punch became a commercial product but was discontinued in the 2010s.3

The first well-known electrolyte-focused sports drinks traces back to Gatorade, which was originally made for the Florida Gators sports teams to provide both rehydration and vital electrolytes. It quickly became a commercial product and has remained popular since. By the late-1960s a powdered form was available and could be used by backpackers and hikers out on the trail.5 However, electrolyte drinks did not become a menu staple for many years.

In his classic, The Complete Walker (1968), author Colin Fletcher discusses the benefits of salt tablets for use while backpacking in hot weather.4 Fletcher's book provides a clue into how limited electrolyte replacement science was understood at the time.

One man is widely recognized for groundbreaking research on this topic. Dr. Dilip Mahalanabis, a pediatrician from India, used oral rehydration salts (a medical grade electrolyte mix) to dramatically reduce death rates during a 1971 cholera outbreak in refugee camps. He used a mix of salt, potassium, glucose, and water to reverse dehydration caused by the disease. He successfully convinced global health organizations that ORS worked at scale as a substitute for IV electrolyte delivery. His success helped change first aid medicine around the world.2

In the early 1990's, Gatorade marketed heavily to the general public to increase sales using their "Be Like Mike" campaign starring Michael Jordan. Prior to the 1990s, electrolyte drinks were primarily found on refreshment tables at professional sports venues. The rising popularity of Gatorade and spread of oral rehydration salts packets in first aid kits helped make backpackers more aware of the benefits of electrolyte consumption.

In the 2010s electrolyte drinks became a wellness fad. Several new brands came to market with products formulated for endurance activities. Several of these new brands, like Nuun and Liquid IV founded in 2004 and 2012 respectively, both sell powder packets. Backpackers quickly latched on to these as they were better formulated for endurance activity than previous products. Liquid IV has a variety of electrolyte mixes and is among the dominate brands in the market today.

The electrolyte drink market is now larger than the entire backpacking industry, a remarkable outcome for a category that barely existed half a century ago. Modern electrolyte drinks offer incredible benefits, but as someone who has tried both modern electrolytes and homemade switchel, I'm not entirely convinced we've improved the flavor.

Combining electrolytes and caffeine in the same drink was the next logical step. The first successful dehydrated "energy" electrolyte drink mix was Kona Cola sold by Nuun released around 2008 to very limited success.6 It was discontinued but it started a revolution. Since then, an entire submarket of caffeinated electrolyte drink mixes and tablets has flooded the market. I've tried several of these products and can certainly understand the appeal after a long day on the trail.

This tale would be incomplete without mentioning that deliciously sweet fire-side drink--hot chocolate. This beverage is much older than most realize. It originated in Mesoamerica hundreds of years ago and was considered a food of the gods. Europeans changed the original recipe by adding sugar and mixing the concoction in milk rather than water and thus, hot chocolate was born.

In 1828, Dutch inventor Coenraad van Houten created the first modern cocoa powder. His hydraulic press removed cocoa butter, leaving a dry powder that could be mixed into liquid. Early backpackers in the late 19th century carried dried cakes of powdered cocoa and sugar to mix into a beverage. Some elected to carry milk powder to mix with it. Horace Kephart mentions powdered milk as a useful ingredient in Camping and Woodcraft which helped to popularize it.7

Ovaltine, a chocolate-flavored malt extract, found its way to U.S. stores by 1915. It offered a more convenient alternative to traditional hot chocolate.8 It contains B vitamins and minerals so after a cold day of hiking in 1925, a mug of Ovaltine probably felt every bit as restorative as a modern recovery drink.

Nestlé Quik, now Nesquik, launched in 1948. Its main selling point was that it dissolved easily in liquids, even cold milk.9 However, it still required milk to make a traditional chocolate drink. Powdered milk had been widely available for over 50 years, so bringing milk powder was no real trial for backpackers. However, as Colin Fletcher noted in The Complete Walker, powdered milk in that era did not mix into water well, often remaining lumpy.4

Swiss Miss hot chocolate hit store shelves in 1961 and offered a revolution for hot chocolate in camp. It included powdered milk and became the first true instant hot chocolate mix. Just add hot water. Swiss Miss has remained popular thanks to how smoothly it mixes into water.

Energy drinks are a fairly popular beverage on the trail today but trace their roots to soda culture. Coca-Cola is the oldest and most popular. Early on its ability to provide "energy" and "vitality" was a central selling point. Dr. Enuf, first sold in the 1950s, is a regional soda sometimes touted as the original energy drink because it was the first to combine B vitamins and caffeine in a drink. Mt. Dew, another soda, was rebranded in the 1970s as an "outdoorsy energy drink" to appeal to young, active consumers.

Interestingly, all three of these drinks were invented in the Southern Appalachian mountain region where hiking is steep and hot. Some backpackers do choose to carry one or two bottles on short trips and chill the drink in a cool creek. Evidence of their presence in the backcountry can be found along remote trails sometimes. However, soda has never been highly popular among backpackers.

Perhaps the most successful energy drink seen on the trail is Red Bull. It began in 1987 and slowly rose to global dominance in the energy drink market. Red Bull is the clear winner when one desires energy as it contains about double the caffeine of Mt. Dew and Dr. Enuf and about three times that of Coca-Cola. Red Bull also has B vitamins, and another energy compound called taurine. Yet, it is still nowhere near the popularity of coffee, which wins on two counts: caffeine and portability.

Next is everyone's favorite morning beverages, coffee, or for the more refined, tea. These beverages are universally loved for their high caffeine content and ability to pair well with sugar. They have been a staple of outdoor pursuits for generations. The coffee percolator was invented in 1889 and quickly becoming the standard method for preparing coffee while camping. Princess Ware made an iconic aluminum design that is still influential today. A related and classic method is the Bialetti Moka pot which has been a staple around the world for nearly a century. It is small enough to still be considered lightweight today, but it has waned in popularity and is only carried by the strictest coffee aficionados.

Prior to the percolator, generations of Americans boiled coffee grounds, or in a pinch, whole beans, directly in water. After boiling, the grounds settle at the bottom, allowing campers to sip the coffee from the top. This method is known by various names, including cowboy coffee and Turkish coffee. In Turkish coffee preparation, a small amount of cold water is sometimes added after brewing to help the grounds settle at the bottom.

Turkish and cowboy brewing methods were common throughout the 19th century, while percolation was the norm during the 20th century. In the 21st century, numerous brewing methods have become trail-ready to cater to diverse tastes. For example, Stanley offers a compact metal French press, and there are many options for pour-over. One of the most popular pour-over options is the Kuju Pocket Pourover which is a disposable filter that sits on the rim of the cup requiring no equipment. The grounds come prepacked in the filter for mess-free coffee prep. Alternatively, there are various folding V60-style filter cones available.

Instant coffee has been around since the 1890s but often received criticism for its bitter taste. Modern methods for processing instant coffee have improved the flavor. One popular choice among campers is Alpine Start, which began in 2016 and is widely renowned for its quality. Instant coffee remains one of the most popular and lightweight options for the trail today. However, the variety of trail-ready coffee prep options available means that everyone is able to make coffee almost exactly as they do at home. While I will always prefer my French press, I will suffer the taste of instant coffee any day over an onion.

Tea, coffee's little sibling, is also popular on the trail. Lightweight copper teapots have been used in mountaineering and on the trail for centuries. Aluminum teapots became available in the late 1800s when the price of aluminum became competitive. Since the late 20th century, compact aluminum or steel teapots have been available that nest neatly with other cookware to save room in a pack. The disposable teabag rose to popularity in the early 20th century, simplifying backcountry tea brewing even further and remains a staple today.

Finally, the drink everyone has been wondering about--alcohol. This adult-only beverage is less popular on the trail than other categories on this list, but it is still widespread. In past decades it was more than just a luxury, it was considered medicinal. Today, it is primarily carried for its recreational properties.

Alcohol causes the blood vessels in the body to expand and release body heat. This makes one feel warmer in the moment, but can lower core body temperature, increasing one's risk for hypothermia. Alcohol hastens heat escaping from the body and should be consumed responsibly in cold weather.

Historically, spirits like whiskey, bourbon, rum, and vodka were popular among backpackers because they provided a high alcohol content without requiring refrigeration. Colin Fletcher himself was fond of bourbon and Scotch. In recent decades, ultralight backpackers have pushed that logic even further, often favoring high-proof spirits such as Everclear.

Other common alcohol brands include Budweiser, especially Bud Light, and Coors Light. These are popular thanks to their cheapness and mild flavor. There are many durable flasks to transport one's prized "trail magic" into the backcountry. They range from durable metal like the Yeti flask to the ultralight Vapur Incognito flask weighing just over one ounce.

If you're into cocktails, here is a great pack-ready recipe for a refreshing drink after a long hike from Backpacker Magazine. Mix Tang into cold stream water. Combine that in a ratio of two parts Tang to one part vodka. Add 8 ounces of premixed lemonade. Garnish with a sprig of wild berries.10

Whether it was Roman posca, switchel carried by farmers, Tang inspired by astronauts, or modern electrolyte mixes, hikers have always pursued the same thing: a drink that makes the next mile easier. While I acknowledge that Horace Kephart probably knew what he was talking about when he advised readers to suck on onions, I won't be trying that anytime soon, or ever. Instead, I believe Ron Swanson said it best, "Camping without beer is just sitting in the woods."

Friday, May 23, 2025

5-Star Toileting Rating System

Here is some fun toilet humor for the trail. Whenever we have to relieve ourselves outdoors, it can be straining. It can be a shocking and life changing experience for those new to the enterprise, especially if things go awry. This rating system can help soften the blow of going outdoors. When someone goes number two, they can rate the experience using the following 5-star system and share their results with their group. Group members can keep track of their scores throughout the trip and compare results at the end to see who has the highest score overall.

The system works as a checklist. Start at 1-star and check off each item that was achieved during your escapade into the bushes. For example, if you: did not fall in, did not get rained on or freeze, and had a good view, then your experience was 3-stars. Additionally, the 5-star system can add a bit of humor to the task of teaching newbies how to relieve themselves properly outdoors using Leave No Trace techniques.

1 Star = Did not fall in...

2 Star = Did not get rained on or freeze.

3 Star = Had a good view.

4 Star = Saw a wild animal, also didn't get attached by said animal.

5 Star = Saw someone who didn't see you, or heard someone who didn't hear you...

Enjoy the go,

By David F. Garner

Tuesday, May 20, 2025

Trail Grub: A History Of Backpacking Food

“When you get a little dirt in your food while camping, it’s called ‘trail seasoning’.” - Anonymous

Cooking and eating around a campfire are one of the greatest hallmarks of camping. For many, the after-meal is the best part of any hike. There is something about carrying your own food for miles and then cooking it in camp that makes it taste better. What types of food have people carried into the backcountry over the decades? Of course, food traditions have varied across cultures and time periods. This article will focus on historical trends of recreational backpacking in the United States.

At the dawn of backpacking, gear, and food were primarily borrowed from military practices. In the late 1800s, dehydrated soup mixes were commonly carried by soldiers and hunters. A broth was prepared using seasonings, meat, and a small number of vegetables, which was then expertly concentrated and dried into a solid ingot that remained shelf-stable for years without packaging. These "pocket soup" blocks could easily be carried in a pack and reconstituted as needed.

To use, one would drop a block into hot or boiling water, and within a few minutes, the hiker would have a piping-hot bowl of soup. When possible, users would forage for additional ingredients to enhance their soup, such as fresh game meat, herbs, mushrooms, or wild vegetables. In the early 20th century, soup bouillon was invented, replacing the condensed broth ingots on the trail. Grandma Gatewood was particularly fond of carrying bouillon. Soup is an excellent trail food due to its high sodium and electrolyte content.

Meat was also dried into jerky and carried on the trail. It was usually carried in rawhide pouches to protect it from moister since modern plastic pouches did not yet exist. Dried fruit and nuts were also utilized when available. Another popular menu item was dry flour and salt that could be mixed with water and cooked into bread. No additional ingredients are needed to make a trail bread. Anyone who has eaten plain trail bread for several days can understand why campers quickly began experimenting with additions like garlic, pepper, and leavening agents. The dough could be fried in a little oil to make pan bread or placed on the end of a stick and roasted over a fire to create stick bread, a method favored by John Muir.

By the end of the 19th century, canned food and drinks packaged in glass were widely available. As a result, these items sometimes ended up in hikers' packs. To dispose of their empty cans and bottles, hikers often buried them or left them in trash heaps. This litter accumulated over the decades, leading hikers to recognize the need for better conservation practices.

As industrial packaging methods improved, canned food became increasingly popular among campers, especially among early car campers. They could simply open a can and heat it by placing it on top of the car engine, earning them the nickname "Tin Can Tourists." Canned food remained a staple on the trail for many years until lighter packaging options became more common. Today, carrying canned food on the trail is often seen as a sign of inexperience.

We cannot forget a hiker's most prized menu item—sugar. In the late 19th century, hard candy confections were all the rage. They were also perfectly suited for the trail. They came in all shapes and sizes and provided just the right energy boost during a long hike. They came in many flavors but some especially popular ones included peppermint, lemon and other citrus, butterscotch, and spicy flavors like cinnamon and anise. Necco wafers are an example of candy that was popular at this time. Necco wafers are the oldest candy brand still produced in the United States. They began operation in 1847 and were popular among Union soldiers and WWII soldiers. They would have been one of the primary candy options available to Earl Shaffer on his thru hike. They can still be found on shelves today sometimes.

Chocolate has long been popular among campers and backpackers, dating back to the early days of recreational outings. Hot chocolate, in particular, serves as a perfect sweet drink for the trail. Since its discovery, cocoa products have been a favorite for hunters, soldiers, and hikers alike. However, preparing a hot chocolate drink requires heat, making it a bit challenging to whip up on the side of the trail for a quick pick-me-up.

Historically, chocolate was primarily consumed as a beverage until the 20th century, though it was also occasionally used in baked goods and other confections. There were chocolate-flavored candies, such as Necco wafers, which gained some popularity.1 In the 19th century, chocolate often came in the form of a powder, ground, and mixed with sugar in tightly packed bars, akin to bouillon cubes. This powdered chocolate could then be added to milk or water to create a drink. Hikers and soldiers sometimes placed a pinch of the powder on their tongues for a quick energy boost, though not everyone enjoyed this treat. The powder, typically made from just cacao and sugar, often had a bitter taste due to the high cocoa content, usually 60% or more, similar to today's dark chocolate.2

Modern chocolate bars, on the other hand, are mixed with fats and milk with a 50% or lower cocoa content, resulting in a sweeter flavor. The fat also provides additional energy for the hike. The first widely available modern-style chocolate bars in the U.S. were Hershey's bars. The Hershey milk chocolate bar was introduced in 1900 and became an instant success.3

Although melting has never deterred a hungry hiker from devouring a chocolate bar, melted chocolate can pose a risk to other items in a backpack. In 1941, Forrest Mars invented a new type of chocolate candy that did not melt because it had a solid sugar coating. He called his creation M&Ms. Many hikers still discover this advantage the hard way after pulling a melted chocolate bar from the bottom of a pack on a summer afternoon. Some argue the Snicker's bar is more popular today. What hungry hiker would say no to any of the above though?

Of course, the epitome of trail desserts is the s'more. Various legends have grown around the origin of camping's greatest snack. The most convincing is that it was invented, or at least popularized, by the Girl Scouts of America. The earliest recipe for a traditional s'more is to be found in Tramping and Trailing with the Girl Scouts published in 1927.4 The dessert was further popularized as a camping treat by Kampgrounds of America (KOA) line of campgrounds who provided the ingredients to their patrons.

In the postwar years, new foods gained popularity thanks to new preservation technology. One food item that became a trail staple was Kraft brand Mac N' Cheese, a dried macaroni and cheese dish. It was invented just before the War in 1937 and gained widespread popularity during the War as a cheap, quick, and tasty meal. It was the perfect trail food because, although it required adding milk and butter, these could easily be procured in powdered form. Macaroni and cheese can be paired with many other items to complete a meal or could serve as the foundation of a more elaborate dish with added ingredients like meat or vegetables and is still fairly popular on the trail.

Freeze-dried food processing was refined and perfected during World War II, creating a new category of food preservation. This innovation allowed for foods to be shelf-stable and enabled quicker reconstitution.

In 1951, an ill-fated Girl Scout trip inspired troop leader Ann Benedict. Struggling under the weight of canned food during the trip, she was determined to find a better solution for trail nutrition. Her idea developed throughout the remainder of the trip, and upon returning home, she began experimenting with dehydrating meals in her garage. This led to the founding of Dri-Lite Foods, which produced lighter, nutritious, just-add-water meals specifically designed for outdoor adventures. Over the following years, she continued to improve and refine the company's processes.

In the 1970s, Dri-Lite Foods began using the freeze-drying process, which allowed for a greater variety of meals. In 1971, they officially changed their name to Backpackers Pantry and grew to become one of the premier companies in the trail food industry.5,6

Mountain House is a well-known brand of freeze-dried backpacking meals that began in 1969 as a subsidiary of Oregon Freeze Dry, which created lightweight meals for the military. The company recognized that the advantages of their meal products could also benefit backpackers and outdoor enthusiasts. As a result, they established a subsidiary dedicated to designing meals specifically targeted at recreational customers. Alongside Backpacker's Pantry, Mountain House helped to create a niche industry focused on adventure-related freeze-dried meal products. Today, thousands of such meal items are available for purchase online.

Jerky remains a staple for those on the trail. This portable food option has been popular for thousands of years, although its production is labor-intensive. The first commercial beef jerky factory opened in the U.S. in 1926, primarily supplying the military. Since then, commercial jerky products have proliferated, and beef is no longer the only option. A variety of meats can be found in jerky form, and there are even meatless alternatives available today.

Fish has also traditionally been a common trail snack. The preservation of fish in tin cans dates back to 1824 when the first factory was established to package tinned sardines. This method gained popularity among militaries, explorers, adventurers, and later recreational campers. Historically, canned fish has been more popular than fish jerky or dried fish. However, today, it is more common to find fish packaged in plastic pouches rather than cans while on the trail. There are many varieties of fish available in numerous flavors, making it a great snack choice for outdoor excursions.

Trail mix, also known as GORP (Good Old Raisins and Peanuts), is one of the oldest trail foods. A combination of nuts and dried fruits has sustained human travel for thousands of years. The modern version often includes some form of candy or chocolate. In the early 20th century, it was common in some regions of the U.S. to add candy corn instead of chocolate.

The slang term "gorp" emerged in the 1950s or 60s. Trail mix can vary greatly, ranging from simple combinations with just peanuts and raisins to elaborate mixes with 20 or more ingredients. It can be bland, bold, salty, sweet (or both), spicy, or mild. Some adventurous individuals even add coffee beans for an extra energy boost. While trail mix is typically dry, some people choose to add water or milk to their mixes.7

The granola bar, also known as a cereal bar or, more generically, an energy bar, is now a staple on trail menus. Its close relative, the protein bar, is also quite popular. While they share a similar shape, their macronutrient profiles differ significantly. Granola bars typically contain higher amounts of carbohydrates and lower levels of protein and fat, whereas protein bars are designed to have more protein than carbohydrates or fats.

But where did they originate? Modern energy bars trace their roots back to the U.S. space program. NASA sought a high-energy snack that astronauts could consume without removing their helmets. To meet this need, Pillsbury was contracted to develop a suitable product, resulting in Space Food Sticks—essentially energy bars shaped like Slim Jims. These bars gained popularity during the 1960s and 70s.

In 1973, Nature Valley introduced the first mass-produced granola bar, their rectangular Oats N' Honey bar. Then, in the 1980s, the Power Bar emerged as the first successful protein bar, helping to popularize energy bars further. These mass-produced items were made feasible by plastic packaging, although the concept of shelf-stable energy bars is not entirely new. Cultures around the world have crafted such bars for centuries, with pemmican being a notable example.

The Clif Bar is perhaps the most iconic energy bar that one might see someone pull from their backpack. It was invented by Gary Erickson and officially launched in 1992. It was designed for outdoor activities that require a high level of energy. The bar was named after the creator's father, not as a misspelling of the rocky feature. It features higher sugar and fat content compared to other traditional energy bars of that time. Although it faces many competitors today, Clif Bar remains popular due to its variety of delicious flavors.

Another highly popular item on the trail menu is peanut butter, which has gained even more popularity in recent years thanks to its availability in single-serving sizes. Peanut butter made its first public appearance at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904 and has remained a favorite ever since. Its enduring popularity is largely due to its versatility; it pairs well with many other ingredients or can be enjoyed on its own as a convenient snack.

Many of the foods discussed here clearly require a fire or stove for cooking. Recreational campers have traditionally relied on fire to prepare their heartiest meals. However, in the 1990s, a new trend emerged that focused on carrying as little weight as possible. Ultralight backpacking emphasizes reducing pack weight to make hiking easier, sometimes at the expense of other comforts on the trail. One such method is cold soaking.

The widespread availability of partially cooked, dehydrated, or freeze-dried food allows backpackers to quickly rehydrate their meals at camp. Eventually, many backpackers realized that heat is not essential for reconstituting their food. By simply soaking the dried food in water for several hours, it can become palatable again. Cold soaking has gained popularity among dedicated ultralight backpackers because it eliminates the need for a stove and fuel, saving several ounces of weight. However, many of these backpackers admit that this weight-saving method often results in a loss of flavor in the food. Thankfully, a long arduous hike often results in a willingness to eat nearly anything.

Caffeine is an essential item for many people when they are on the trail. Generations of backpackers have looked forward to their morning coffee or tea ritual after crawling out of their sleeping bag. Today, caffeine is also extracted and added to foods and supplements. The first caffeine-laced energy bar, called the First Strike Bar, was introduced in 1996 and was developed for the U.S. military. Since then, caffeinated snacks, gels, chews, and bars have become common trail foods.

In the late 20th century, plastic packaging largely replaced metal cans and glass as the preferred food storage material. The plastic pouch emerged as a lightweight alternative to the tin can, which greatly benefited backpackers who carry their groceries over long distances. As a result, shelf-stable, partially cooked foods became widely available in various options. Backpackers enjoyed an unprecedented variety of quick, affordable, and lightweight meals.

However, by the early 21st century, a significant issue came to light: many of the pre-packaged food choices were not particularly healthy, often containing unhealthy or even harmful preservatives, additives, and other chemicals. Additionally, much of the pre-packaged food available at the turn of the millennium did not accommodate individuals with food allergies.

Two major trends emerged in the 21st century: a shift towards healthier foods that are less processed and contain fewer questionable or harmful ingredients, as well as an increase in options for those with allergies. Allergy-sensitive food choices included dairy-free, gluten-free, and nut-free products. These changes were evident across general grocery store brands and among those specifically targeting backpackers.

When it comes to a topic as diverse as food, it's impossible to cover every type available. We have highlighted some of the most popular foods among hikers in the U.S. over the decades. One of the greatest aspects of backpacking or camping is the endless variety of menu items that can be enjoyed. There are always new foods to try and new flavors to experience. You never know what someone might pull out of their pack to satisfy their hunger. However, one thing is certain: meals always taste better in the great outdoors than at the kitchen table.

By David F. Garner

Friday, May 16, 2025

An Etymology of GORP

It is often said that this funny term for trail mix is an acronym for good old raisins and peanuts. It is less commonly argued that it instead means granola, oats, raisins, and peanuts. This latter meaning appears ironic as granola typically contains oats. Also, I have never seen anyone put granola in their trail mix. I'll have to try that on my next hike.

Neither alleged definition of GORP (capitalized when used as an acronym) captures the true origin of the word. Instead, these are backronyms-- meanings that have been added after the word became popular to explain its origin. According to the Wikipedia article for "trail mix" a 1913 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary provides a definition for gorp of "to eat greedily". However, I cannot find the original 1913 edition anywhere to confirm. Also, the Oxford English Dictionary online article for gorp has no such reference and cites its first known use to 1970.

The word gorp is in fact much older than 1970, and so is the snack itself. A writer for the REI blog found examples of a similar snack going back to the 1830s.1 Some recipes for gorp from the late 1800s and early 1900s call for candy corn in place of chocolate. Gross!

Gorp has held different meanings in the past. An 1888 glossary of words used around Sheffield, England lists the word as a synonym for gape, yawn, or stare. The glossary spells the word as "g-a-u-p" but gives the pronunciation as "gorp". This may be an example of an intrusive R sound which can be common in some English dialects.2 Another England-based text from 1875 uses the term as a synonym for gape. This text spells the term phonetically "g-o-r-p". So, it seems this word had regional use in England in the late 1800s, but the spelling varied.3 Gorp was also a term for an unfledged baby bird in the late 19th and early 20th century. This makes sense as baby birds spend much of their time with mouth wide open awaiting food from their parents.4

So how did the term come to refer to trail mix? The origin of this definition is foggy. The earliest mention of gorp referring to trail mix is from 1958 in an article detailing a hike in Olympic National Park. The author gives the recipe which includes raisins, nuts, and M&Ms—the classic mix. This gives us a clue that the term may have originated in the Pacific Northwest.

Perhaps the most extensive research on this topic was done for a 1995 Backpacker magazine article. The author, Hannah Holmes, interviewed several linguists and food historians for the piece. The conclusion of her research was that the term arose in the 1960s as part of the health food craze. One of the experts interviewed was a spokesperson for Websters New World Dictionary who declared, "We claim its impossible to know where it comes from." referring to the origin of gorp as a synonym for trail mix. However, Holmes notes that this dictionary reports that gorp as a verb means "to eat greedily." Despite an extensive search at my local library of older dictionaries, I was unsuccessful at finding one listing this meaning for the word to corroborate these claims.6

If this was the case and gorp was used as a verb in the first half of the 20th century to refer to eating greedily, we can imagine a rational progression. First, gape changes to gorp via regional accents. This wide mouth facial expression would look similar to someone eating greedily with their mouth opening widely. So, the term becomes synonymous with eating quickly. One frequently eats trailside snacks greedily. So, the verb finally becomes a noun to refer to the otherwise nameless trail snack that is often eaten greedily.

Another article written by an etymologist confirms the likelihood of this hypothesis. He references several other dictionaries from the first half of the 20^th century that purportedly give the definition of "gorp" as "to eat greedily". He also makes a connection to the older term gaup and similar sounding words like gawk and gawp that all indicated a wide-mouthed expression of surprise. He notes that this hypothesis is plausible but unproven with the current evidence.7 Whatever the case, we will all shamelessly continue to gorp our GORP like a little gorp.

By David F. Garner

Tuesday, March 11, 2025

From Lanterns to Headlamps: A History of Portable Light On The Trail

In the early days of recreational camping, most campers relied on the natural light provided by their fire, or the moon on a bright night to see after dark. A modest fire can provide light equivalent to about one hundred candles. Until modern times, many tents were made of white or light-colored canvas, and the campfire was often built near the tent to provide warmth all night. The light-colored material reflected some of the fire light, amplifying its brightness. Although fires provide enough light for most after-dark tasks, they are not portable.

Candles and oil wicks filled the role of portability and were most useful inside lanterns or tents. Although they could be extinguished with a strong gust of wind, they were more resilient than many who live today assume. Lanterns, while commonly used, were heavy, bulky, and often fragile.

Soldiers, hunters, and mountaineers often carried lanterns and preferred designs with durable construction and small-size or folding parts for better portability. Some examples include pocket folding lanterns (pictured at right), skater-style lanterns, and punched tin lanterns, which had a tin frame with small holes punched to allow the light through in lieu of glass or mica.

Skater lanterns were simple oil lanterns with a compact design and thick glass which made them popular with ice skaters who used them to light their path as they glided across the ice. This term eventually became synonymous with a small oil lantern. In contrast, punched tin lanterns were not intended for nighttime travel. They were intended as candle transporters such as between the house and barn or between two tents in camp. The holes provided just enough illumination to walk carefully while preventing the candle from being extinguished by the wind.

All these lanterns could typically use oil or candles and often featured foldable components to improve packability. Despite these advancements, they remained bulky by today’s portable light standards.

Lighting technology was advancing rapidly at the dawn of recreational camping. In less than a century, portable outdoor lighting evolved from ancient methods to the electric flashlight. Lighting technology had historically depended on burning fat, oil, or beeswax. Before the Civil War, beeswax candles were quite expensive, especially for working-class individuals. Whale oil was also usually too expensive for the working class. So, they typically relied on tallow, vegetable oil, or some other animal-derived fat.

Advances in refining crude oil transformed the lighting landscape in the nineteenth century. By the mid-century, paraffin and mechanized manufacturing had significantly lowered the cost of candles. Kerosene emerged as a new, low-cost alternative to animal oils eventually supplanting them by the 1870s. Lantern technology progressed quickly over the second half of the nineteenth century.

Outdoor recreation brought new demands that required specialized lighting technology. The journey from lanterns to headlamps happened more quickly than you might expect. We will begin by looking at the early authors who first informed city dwellers about how to camp for fun.

William H.H. Murray published Adventures in the Wilderness in 1869 and launched the outdoor recreation movement. His book was part adventure narrative part guidebook. He writes to a broad audience and recommends they hire a guide to lead them into the wilderness. Thus, his instructions are limited on the topic of gear. He assumes the professional guide will manage many of these things. So, he does not mention lighting options for camp.

Instead, Murray spends a few pages discussing a light source for night hunting and fishing as he knew this was a popular reason many of his readers would hire a guide. He describes his invention of a headlamp used for hunting deer only, not hiking. Here is an excerpt.

“Having in seasons previous experienced the disadvantages of the old jack [synonym for lantern], I determined to invent and construct one which should absolutely overcome all these imperfections. This is what I hit upon. I took a common fireman's hat, and, having the rim removed, had the crown padded with wadding, and lined with chamois-skin. I caused a half-moon lantern of copper to be made with a concave bottom which fitted closely to the hat, and was fastened thereto with screws. Through the top of the hat a hole was made large enough for the burner to pass; the lamp itself, containing the oil, was fitted and held by brass studs to the crown, between it and the head. In the back side of the lantern was placed a German-silver reflector, heavily plated. The screw which lifts and lowers the wick was connected with a shank that projected through the side of the lantern, so that by a touch of the finger the light might be let on or cut off. A large, softly padded throat-latch buckled the jack firmly to my head. Observe the advantages of this jack over the old style. Being enclosed by an air-tight glass front, it might be used in a tornado. When floating for deer you could turn the wick so low down that no light was visible, and when one was heard you could run down toward him, and, with your finger on the adjusting screw, turn on the light just when you wanted it, and not an instant before, and this too without a moment's pause. If the deer was on the jump, it made no difference. The reflector was so powerful, that, if you turned the wick well up, it made a lane some three rods wide and fifteen rods long as light as day, and the jack being on your head, the blaze was never off the leaping deer, whose motion your eye would naturally follow, and as your head turned, so, without thought or effort on your part, turned the jack.”1 (edited for grammar to improve readability) Here we see Murray experimenting with a head-mounted light. His contraption was never patented so far as can be found, but he was well ahead of his time.

John M. Gould authored a comprehensive camping guide How To Camp Out, published in 1877. He was not too keen about the lanterns available in his day. He recommended candles to his readers. He advised packing a candle stand or if unavailable, “…use your pocket-knife, putting one blade in the bottom or side of the candle, and another blade into the ground or tent-pole.”2

In 1873 John H. Irwin patented his cold-blast tubular lantern. The Dietz Company licensed the rights to sell Irwin's design and sold it as the now-famous Hurricane lantern (pictured at top). It used a flat wick--a novel concept at the time--to burn kerosene. Its safety features and ability to remain lit in higher winds made it extremely popular for outdoor lighting, earning its hurricane moniker. It became a popular choice of lantern for campers until the Coleman came along.

Imagine leaving camp before dawn to check a trap line or stalk deer through the timber. A full-size hurricane lantern would illuminate the way, but carrying one felt like hauling a piece of the kitchen into the woods. For outdoorsmen who wanted something smaller, Dietz introduced the Boy lantern in 1879. Styled after the compact skater lanterns already familiar to many Americans, it provided a practical compromise between brightness and portability.

George Washington Sears, known as Nessmuk, also commented on portable lighting options. By the time Woodcraft and Camping was published, sportsmen could purchase ready-made oil lamps that could be mounted on hats. Sears referenced Murray's description in his book. However, it is unclear what Murray’s light looked like. It likely resembled the reflector oil lamps common in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

One example of such a lamp is the Ferguson Excelsior Universal Lamp (above) which was designed to be small and bright. It had a reflector behind the flame to concentrate the light in one direction. It was universal because various mounts could be purchased to attach it to a boat, a bicycle, a carriage, or a hat. It could be easily carried to light the trail as Sears recommends. It could also be hung from a pole to light a tent.

One fascinating element of this story is the Hitchcock lamp (below). Although it is not well known today, it uniquely addressed some of the problems of oil lamps. The lantern globe offers a decent barrier from crosswinds that could extinguish the flame. More importantly, it acts as a chimney providing an updraft of air that comes from below the flame allowing it to burn cleanly and brightly.

The downside of globes is that they are made of fragile glass. The Hitchcock lamp eliminated the need for a globe by incorporating a wind-up fan beneath the flame. It was advertised in Ladies Home Journal to women as a sturdy lamp suitable for camping.3

The Handbook for Boys published in the U.S. in 1911 includes a candle in the camp packing list. It also warns against reading by candlelight in bed due to the risk of fire if the user falls asleep. The Handbook suggests a carbide lamp, specifically the Baldwin Camp Lamp, for group camping. This style of lamp burned acetylene gas and was invented in 1900 by Frederick Baldwin.

The carbide lamp (below) was primarily used by miners and cavers, but it also found popularity among backpackers and outdoorsmen well into the 1970s. Notably, Gene Epsy, the second person to through-hike the Appalachian Trail carried one instead of a flashlight.4

Another popular lantern model in the early twentieth century was the Dietz Scout, which was based on the earlier Boy model. The Scout was a small oil lantern first sold in 1921. It was designed for portability and was popular among Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, hunters and backpackers. Learn more about them here.

W.C. Coleman began his lamp business in 1900. He did not invent the technology behind his lamps, the incandescent mantel which burned pressurized gas. It was first patented by Carl Auer von Welsbach, an Austrian inventor, in 1884. It represented a huge leap in light output.

Imagine pulling into a roadside campground in 1914. As darkness settles over the tents, someone pumps pressure into a Coleman lantern and suddenly floods the campsite with brilliant white light. To campers accustomed to candles and dim oil lamps, it must have seemed almost miraculous. Coleman released the Model L (also referred to as Model 316) as their first lantern in 1914. The model quickly gained a glowing reputation among farmers and campers alike.

A backpacker in 1926 faced an odd choice. He could carry a candle, little changed from those used centuries earlier, a kerosene lantern descended from Victorian technology, or one of the strange new carbide lamps that produced acetylene gas on demand. For the first time, lighting technology was evolving fast enough that two hikers standing beside the same campfire might be using devices separated by generations of innovation.

By the 1930s, many campers wanted Coleman brightness without carrying a heavy lantern better suited to a farm wagon than a backpack. In 1933, a Boy Scout flipping through the pages of Boy's Life might have encountered an answer: the Coleman 242 Junior (left). It delivered 150 candlepower of the brilliant white light that made Coleman famous in a package small enough to appeal to hikers, scouts, and canoe travelers.8

The Coleman 242 represented the cutting edge of camp lighting in the 1930s. Yet not every backpacker wanted the complexity, weight, or fuel consumption of a pressurized gas lantern. For many outdoor travelers, the humble candle remained an attractive alternative: less light, but also less weight.

In 1919, Danish patent number 24,426 was issued for a candle lantern that became truly ground-breaking by solving one of the technology's fundamental shortcomings. It featured a spring under the candle pressing it upward into a funnel. This design allowed the flame to remain stationary and ensured all wax was consumed. For backpackers on multiday trips, every bit of wax mattered.

Candle lanterns offered a few other advantages. They cast a softer, cozier light and could warm a small tent on a cold night without the risk of scorching the fabric the way larger lanterns sometimes could. By the 1950s, the spring candle lantern had matured into a compact, collapsible design and became a favorite of mountaineers and backpackers on both sides of the Atlantic. One man still saw room for improvement.

In the early 1980s, Gary Klees set out to refine the design further, work that eventually helped produce the UCO candle lantern, a model that remains popular more than forty years later. Klees first sold his design under the brand Early Winters. Eventually, the Klees design dropped the Early Winters label and became the UCO lantern.

Despite their popularity, candle lanterns have some drawbacks. When hung in a small tent, they are prone to being bumped and jostled which often results in wax running down into the spring mechanism, gumming it up. This necessitates frequent cleaning to remove wax buildup. One effective solution is to replace the candle with an oil reservoir converting the packable candle lantern to an oil lantern. Today, many people prefer LED lanterns for their simplicity and low risk, resulting in a decline in candle lantern's prevalence in camp.28

One of the most convenient flame lanterns ever produced may have been the Coleman 5154 A 700 which operates on propane or butane fuel. It entered the market in the early to mid-1980s and featured a piezo igniter. It had two mantles and could be ignited without a match or lighter in just one half-turn of the knob making it nearly as simple to use as an electric lantern.

Propane lanterns provide more light relative to the fuel weight, than liquid fuel lanterns, although they require thicker-walled containers, which diminishes most of the weight advantages. The main appeal of propane lanterns is their simplicity. This was especially true in past decades since propane was more expensive when first introduced.

In contrast, liquid fuel lanterns require pouring and regular pumping to pressurize the tank. The liquid fuel also poses a risk of leaking into the pack. Propane is more convenient and has a smaller learning curve. It’s hard to determine which fuel type sold more units. Both propane and liquid fuel lanterns were popular through the late 80s, 90s and 00s.

Open the pack of a backpacker in 1982 and there was a good chance you would find a compromise between old and new: a compact gas lantern small enough to carry into the backcountry but bright enough to illuminate an entire campsite. One popular example was the Coleman Peak 1 model 222 which was released in 1981. Renowned guidebook author Johnny Molloy, carried one in his pack for years.5

Primus also manufactured small lanterns over the latter decades of the twentieth century. The 2220 (below to right) is mentioned by Fletcher in The New Complete Walker as the clear winner among available backpacking lanterns. It weighed one pound four ounces including the fuel tank. It was a compact single-mantle propane lantern.

Coleman later produced a competitor named the Compact (model 2000026392) which boasted 300 lumens as stated on the box. This model experienced some success and is still available. These small propane lanterns offered two advantages to backpackers: convenience and space savings. However, they offered minimal weight advantages over liquid fuel lantern models due to the heavier propane tanks.

Butane canisters were generally lighter thanks to thinner walls. Converters could be purchased that enabled propane lanterns to connect to butane fuel tanks beginning in the 1970s. Butane has one major drawback: it does not function well at temperatures below the mid-40s Fahrenheit, which leads many campers to prefer propane lanterns for their versatility.

An obvious solution would be to mix the fuels into one canister. Unfortunately, U.S. law prohibited this until around 1989. Mixed butane/propane canisters had been commonplace in Europe and other regions for many years prior to that change. When the law was amended, European manufacturers were ready to enter the U.S. market.29 These canisters became popular in the 1990s thanks to the ultralight movement and updated laws. They offered all the advantages of propane while being lighter than the standard one-pound propane canisters. An early example of these lanterns sold in the U.S. is the Camping Gaz Bivouac 270.6

Today, Primus sells a couple of models using these canisters and Fire-Maple makes a model also called Orange. These have not achieved widespread popularity as most people prefer LED lanterns or classic two-mantle flame lantern, which provides more light and a nostalgic look.

Electrification

For centuries, carrying light meant carrying a flame. Then something extraordinary happened. The first electric flashlight was invented by David Misell and patented in 1899. Conrad Hubert purchased the patent to be sold by his company as the no. 1. This company would later become the well-known Ever Ready, and later, Eveready. Misell’s design featured a tubular shape that was easy to hold, with a body made of stiff cardboard covered by leather.

Initial models had limitations, as they provided brief "on" periods lasting a moment or two. The switch had to be held in the “on” position, and if released, would revert to “off.” They were initially popular with city police who patrolled on foot to search alleyways and streets at night. They were advertised to the public and the first catalog described them as useful for minors, hunters, plumbers, physicians, etc.9

These handheld flashlights had moderate success from the beginning despite their limitations. However, the number 1 only had a brief time in the spotlight and was quickly overshadowed by upgraded models.

In 1903, a sportsman heading into the woods could purchase an Eveready Comet (below), designed by Morris Newgold, and produce light with the press of a switch. The beam was weak by modern standards, but the idea felt almost magical. No matches. No fuel. No smoke. Just light on demand.

This flashlight had an all-metal construction and a unique spring blade switch that could be held down to provide momentary light or be turned 90 degrees to the “on” position. The Comet was the first light marketed directly to outdoor enthusiasts with an ad appearing in Field and Stream Magazine on May 2, 1903, under the heading "Sportsman’s Flashlight." It sold for $2.00 and stayed in Eveready’s catalog until about 1920 as an “economy” model. (Flashlights pg 109)10 The Comet remained virtually unchanged through this time.

In 1907 Eveready introduced a tungsten filament bulb to their line of flashlights. These new tungsten filament bulbs lasted longer and produced a brighter beam compared to prior carbon filament versions. Eveready also introduced several models with metal bodies, significantly improving durability over the original paperboard construction. Despite these advancements, the early models were still limited by the technology of the day, or instance, the batteries had a shelf life of only nine months. Nevertheless, campers took to these newfangled electric torches quickly despite their limitations.11

By 1915 Eveready boasted 75 different models in their offerings. So it is unlikely a single model can be identified as the most influential or responsible for converting the masses to electrify their camp lights. This same year, Eveready began a marketing campaign strategy that targeted campers by regularly placing ads in outdoor recreation-focused publications like Field and Stream, Outdoor Life, and Rod and Gun in addition to publications with a broader audience. Most of the ads feature a different model in their line.

Some advertisements claim that all their models are water- and oil-proof. However, today it might be more accurate to refer to them as water-resistant as few of their models were watertight enough to withstand full submersion.

The brand marketed to both men and women. The model 4706 (right) was advertised in Ladies Home Journal as compact enough to fit in a handbag yet powerful enough for any nighttime needs, even in camp.7

Two models featured prominently in the advertisements are particularly noteworthy because they are easily recognizable as flashlights. Models 2659 (left) and 2633 both have a cylindrical body with a flared head where the bulb sits. This form factor eventually became the standard design for nearly all handheld flashlights. Plus, these models seem to be featured most often in advertisements across both the United States and Canada.

Outdoor Life magazine printed a lengthy article in 1916 that illuminated readers of the merits of an electric flashlight in camp. The piece was authored by famed outdoor writer Robert Page Lincoln. Endorsements from popular outdoor writers like Lincoln fueled the transition from flame to filament.12

Various Scouting magazines ran ads for flashlights, and some camping guidebooks of the interwar years recommended them alongside other lighting options. By at least the 1930s, Boy Scout leaders expressed concern that young people and some adults were unfamiliar with operating flame lanterns because they primarily used electric portable lights. Full electrification of all light sources in camp was still many decades away, however.13

One of the most recognizable and iconic flashlights in history is the World War II-era angle-head GI flashlight. It was the standard issue light source for U.S. troops during that global conflict and proved to be durable, continuing to serve throughout the Vietnam War. Where did it originate?

The inspiration for the light begins in 1923 when a man named Charles Osean filed a patent for a flashlight with an elbow design. He added a clip on the back of the head so it could be hooked on a pocket or mount. Osean’s design became the Eveready model number 2694 and was made of brass. The Eveready flashlight was released around 1925.

If you attended a Boy Scout camp in the late 1920s, chances are good you would have seen one hanging from a belt or pack strap. It could easily be carried hooked on the belt or pack strap to provide light for the trail, or set on the ground to illuminate camp. It was so popular among the Scouts, Eveready released a Boy Scout branded model in 1927, model number 2697 (left).

In the late 1930s, the U.S. military released the TL-122 which was a copy of the Eveready number 2697. Then in 1939, Eveready updated the Boy Scout model giving it a brighter bulb, altered switch design, and nickel plating for improved durability. This was model number 8527. In the same year, the military released the TL-122A, a new model painted in dark colors to prevent glare. This is the model that went to war with U.S. troops in 1941.

The U.S. military issued the TL-122B flashlight made with Bakelite plastic in 1943. This light quickly became the new standard issue flashlight of the U.S. military and soldiers coyly nicknamed it “moonbeam." During the Vietnam War, several significant upgrades were made and introduced in the 1960s under model number MC-99/U.14 This new model was manufactured by Fulton Industries which continues to make it today.

In the post-war years, these various military models were sold as surplus. They were cheap, reliable, and versatile. Thanks to their popularity with the Boy Scouts and veterans, they were one of the most popular electric lights in backpacks. This can be seen in camping guides of the era such as The Golden Book of Camping published in 1959 by Gordon Lynn.

Earl Shaffer carried an electric flashlight on his long trek as the first person to complete a long-distance through-hike in 1948. It is possible that he used a surplus GI flashlight, although his gear list in his book does not specifically mention a flashlight. His diary, however, reveals he carried one.15

The TL-122 was more heavy-duty than many of its contemporaries. Most tubular flashlights made through the 1970s were constructed of metal. While metal construction provided sturdiness, it often made the flashlights susceptible to specific types of damage. The metal was frequently thin, easily bent, and prone to corrosion. As part of my research for this article, I purchased a flashlight made in the 1940s. When I showed it to my grandfather, I casually remarked, “They don’t make ‘em like that anymore.” He replied, “Thank God!”

A backpacker leaving camp after sunset in the 1950s likely wasn't carrying the tiny lights we know today. More often, the trail ahead was illuminated by a substantial metal flashlight powered by C batteries. One popular example was the Ray-O-Vac Sportsman, a model preferred by Colin Fletcher. The Sportsman appeared in ads beginning around 1953 and was slightly more rugged than most models.16 It remained a popular model for over twenty years.

For weight-concious hikers of the 1960s, the arrival of smaller AA-powered lights felt liberating. Fletcher praised one such model, the Mallory (below) which featured a new idea, an all plastic body. Fletcher praises the Mallory in his 1968 classic, The Complete Walker. He acknowledges that the larger C- and D-powered lights of the day were better for nighttime trail travel, but the Mallory was one of the lightest options and performed well in camp and tent. The Mallory became quite popular among backpackers through the 1970s.17

Fletcher reports the Sportsman would last one and a half hours on standard carbon-zinc batteries. This was quite short for a multiday trips. A flashlight and candle lantern were a common midcentury light strategy for solo hikers or small parties in lieu of a liquid fuel lantern.

Not everyone desired the higher weight of C and D battery-powered lights. Even before the Mallory, penlights were widely available and some backpackers found these sufficient when carrying a candle too. The 1962 book All About Camping recommends only a penlight and a candle in its packing lists, no other light source.

There were also electric lamps and lanterns available. Some chose to carry them whether for safety or convenience. Electric lanterns have been around since the 1910s. Eveready produced one of the first which was a kerosene lantern body with a lightbulb and battery compartment in the bottom rather than a wick and fuel tank.18 Electric lanterns were most frequently used in situations where they did not need to be carried far on foot. This is less to do with total weight and more to do with the light-to-weight ratio as the weight of available models was roughly similar.

Flame lanterns provided more light output per pound of weight compared to their electric counterparts. Additionally, batteries are more susceptible to cold temperatures than fuel. Modern batteries are better but still have this same limitation. Research by Phil Harris at classicpressurelamps.com indicates a typical tungsten filament incandescent bulb emits about 1.25 Candlepower (CP) per watt, although this could vary depending on many factors.

During the 1960s, an average electric lantern used a bulb of around 0.75 to 1.5 watts, such as the Mazda number 27. Using this conversion, a battery lantern from that era may have emitted less than 2 CP. Research from voltlighting.com and the Federal Trade Commission website suggests that a typical tungsten filament bulb produces about 15 lumens per watt. That means these lanterns were only producing about 20-25 lumens total.

Ads for the single-mantle Coleman lanterns claim they produce around 150 CP and around 400 lumens. Thus, it is easy to see why flame lanterns were the first choice for backpacking. This also explains why directional electric lanterns were more common than omnidirectional ones as the limited light output could be concentrated where desired.

The Eveready Dalphin (left) is a very influential model of a directional electric lantern. It was first introduced in 1967 as an orange, waterproof, floating, lantern with an all-plastic construction. It used a large battery like other electric lanterns of the era to increase run time. A couple of years later, the color was changed to yellow and has remained so ever since. Over the years, it has been improved and updated and still has a following more than 50 years later, thanks to its high durability and low cost.19

Eveready introduced the first mass-market fluorescent lantern in 1968. Fluorescent tubes are more energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs, meaning they could produce more light. These lanterns gained some popularity among campers. From the 1970s to the early 00s, Coleman and various other brands also produced fluorescent lanterns.

Some of the first mass-market heavy-duty and water-resistant flashlights went on sale in the 1970s. Kel-Lite was one of the pioneers in this category. MagLite models hit stores in 1979 and quickly gained a widespread reputation for durability. MagLite had several advantages over Kel-Lite including its adjustable focus beam and rubber-protected switches. Flashlights were becoming more powerful and more rugged. Backpackers everywhere rejoiced.

If you opened a backpack in 1985, there was a fair chance a Mini MagLite would tumble out. The flashlight was small enough for a pocket, rugged enough for backcountry use, and bright enough to make older penlights seem obsolete. Introduced in 1984, the Mini MagLite quickly became one of the defining lights of its era.

Earlier Kel-Lite and MagLite models were relatively heavy because they ran on C- or D-cell batteries. The Mini MagLite used two AA batteries and a milled aluminum body, producing about 5-8 lumens of light. It was also waterproof because of its twist-on mechanism instead of a traditional switch.

Accessories abounded, such as a head strap, to make it even more versatile. The Mini Mag enjoyed widespread popularity for decades as a favorite among campers, rescue personnel, and national park rangers.20 It became popular as a weapon-mounted light with military forces.21

Plastic became the new material of choice for inexpensive flashlights. Consumers made their wishes clear by avoiding these models in favor of heavy duty Mag-style lights. This compelled other manufacturers to improve the durability of their products. Coleman and Ray-O-Vac opted to add a rubber casing around the plastic body of their lights. Coleman's Armor Clad line is one example many backpackers from the 1980s recall well. Thankfully, plastic technology progressed and became much more durable. Ray Jardine favored the AA model of the Ray-O-Vac Roughneck, which was about half the weight of the Mini Mag with similar performance.22

Electric headlamps had been around for decades for both mining and recreational use. However, the limited battery technology meant large and heavy batteries. The batteries were so large they were mounted on a hip belt or in a pocket. One example is a the Hedlite model by Barney & Berry sold in the 1920s. While some backpackers lugged these into the wilderness, most preferred the more common tubular handheld variety. Headlights were a specialty item used for mountaineering, fishing, and other sports that always demanded two hands.

Every backpacker knows the frustration of trying to pitch a tent while holding a flashlight between their teeth. Fernand Petzl and his wife modified a mining headlamp by reducing the size of the battery pack. They mounted both the lamp and battery pack to an elastic garter Catherine found at a lingerie store. How French! This concept light became the Zoom headlamp which debuted in 1981. The Zoom headlamp freed both hands for hiking, cooking, and camp chores. It was not the first electric headlamp, but it helped establish the form factor that modern hikers now take for granted. However, this form factor needed one more upgrade before going mainstream.

In the early 2000s, a remarkable technological innovation illuminated the world: white LED bulbs. These bulbs significantly improved energy efficiency, enabling the use of smaller batteries and extending runtimes, making them a powerful ally in the fight against darkness. Another key advantage of LED bulbs is their longevity; they can last for thousands of hours, unlike traditional bulbs that typically last only dozens of hours.

LEDs had been around for decades as small blue, red, and yellow lights, commonly found in compact flashlights used for reading maps or books. However, the invention of white LEDs presented a challenge for engineers for many years. In the late 1990s, there were a few white LED tubular lights available, but they were primarily the size of penlights and lacked the brightness needed for trail use.

Imagine arriving in camp in 2000 and realizing you no longer needed spare bulbs, spare batteries, or a backup flashlight for a weekend trip. For many hikers, the LED era began with lights like the Princeton Tec Matrix (left). This is believed to be the first mass-produced headlamp with LEDs. The model was waterproof and featured three high-output white LEDs.

It has been estimated that the Matrix emitted about 25-35 lumens in total. While this is poor by modern standards, it felt like Star Trek technology at the time, especially considering it only needed two AA batteries. The real selling point for most consumers was the increased battery life. When using alkaline batteries, older technology, it lasted up to 40 hours. With more expensive lithium batteries, it lasted 90-100 hours. The Matrix model retailed for $49.99.23

When this model was first released, headlamps only accounted for a fraction of flashlight sales. Thanks to the LED, headlamps have quickly closed the gap and now rank as a close second to traditional tubular style flashlights.24

The introduction of waterproof LED headlamps has established them as the preferred choice for trail lighting. Over the past twenty-five years, there have been significant improvements in LED and battery technology. A search on the REI website reveals that headlamps with light outputs of 350-400 lumens are available for around $50. The Petzl Tikka Core, for example, provides 450 lumens for $59.95. Most headlamps in the $20-30 price range offer 200-300 lumens, which is sufficient for trail use. Another advantage of LED technology is the ability to easily switch between output levels. Most flashlights come with 2 to 4 settings, with low settings around 7-10 lumens, medium settings around 100 lumens, and a maximum output for brighter needs. Additionally, many headlamps now come equipped with rechargeable lithium batteries, further enhancing their performance. The LED really flipped the switch on what a flashlight could be.

LED technology did not leave lanterns in the 20th century either. A truly ingenious innovation in came in 2010 with the LuminAID inflatable LED lantern (below right) that could be recharged with a built-in solar panel. It was originally designed by Anna Stork and Andrea Sreshta for deployment following natural disasters. The inflatable nature allowed more units to be delivered per shipping container.26

Backpackers quickly saw the portability an inflatable lantern offered and the LuminAID saw some popularity among backpackers and adventurers. However, another lantern, the Luci came on the market just two years later and stole the show. The most current model, the Pro 2.0, emits 150 lumens and can recharge from sunlight alone in twelve hours.

Today, you can occasionally find a practical backpacker who ventured into the great outdoors armed with no other light than their smartphone.The cellphone flashlight mode is made possible by LED and lithium-ion battery technology and was popularized on the Apple iPhone 4 (below).

This idea appears brilliant on the surface, but it is a step backwards in many ways. It is cumbersome to hold while trying to cook or set up camp in the dark, even more than a traditional tubular light. If the battery dies or it gets lost, this could spell disaster. One has lost their light, and if dedicated to the ultralight philosophy, they have also lost their camera, map, compass, and means of calling for aid. Combining these tools into an electronic Swiss army knife does save weight but at considerable risk for minimal gain.

As a result, the smartphone’s built-in flashlight will not replace the standalone light just yet. Perhaps in the future, we will see all these features will be packed into smart glasses. This could allow us to leave our “heavy” headlamps at home and still have two hands to set up our tent or roast our marshmallows.

In 2013, Ann Makosinski, a 15-year-old student, invented a flashlight with no power source. Her invention used only body heat transmitted from the hand holding the device to power the dim LEDs. This was a fascinating feat of engineering. However, it was not very practical as it only produced a maximum of 24 lumens and was sensitive to ambient temperature.27 It is an honorable mention because it has received much publicity inspiring future research and demonstrates humans will continue to innovate light technology.

Today's LED headlamp is brighter than an entire campsite's worth of lighting from Murray's era. Yet something has been lost. Modern hikers rarely gather around a lantern the way earlier campers did. The yellow glow of a candle lantern or Coleman mantle created a center for camp life. LEDs conquered darkness, but they changed the atmosphere of camp as surely as they changed its brightness. Whatever the future holds, it will be bright. The challenge for future campers will not be finding better technology, but deciding what kind of camp life they wish to illuminate.

Other articles to explore on the history of camping:

A History Of Camper’s Love-Hate Relationship With Electronics

Twisted Hickory: A Story of The Walking Stick

A History Of Backcountry Water Filters and Treatment

Outdoor Conservation Ethics Through Time

Life Advice From Gear Instruction Manuals

The Case For Owning A Two-Way Radio

The History of the Humble Disposable Plastic Bag

By David F. Garner

Disclaimer: this article primarily discusses influential technology within the United States.

Sources:

William HH Murray, pg 172-173
John M. Gould, How To Camp Out, 1877.
Ladies Home Journal 1892-12 Vol 10 Iss 1 pg 38 see at Internet Archives. jeffcowiki.miraheze.org/wiki/Hitchcock_Lamp
https://thetrek.co/appalachian-trail/backpacking-gear-changes-through-decades/
https://www.google.com/books/edition/Trial_by_Trail/KMGyqfdrEbYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=coleman+lantern+backpacking&pg=PA76&printsec=frontcover
https://books.google.com/books?id=5d4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA61&dq=campingaz+bivouac+270&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW87GB87uKAxUGm7AFHS7nBA4Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=campingaz%20bivouac%20270&f=false pg 61
https://archive.org/details/sim_ladies-home-journal_1915-04_32_4/page/n95/mode/2up?q=eveready
https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt0cbt2XzGgC&pg=PA40&dq=No.+242+Coleman+Junior&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiru9T955iKAxU8STABHYWCFQ8Q6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=No.%20242%20Coleman%20Junior&f=false
(Flashlights pg 73)
Ibid. (Flashlights pg 109)
https://www.google.com/books/edition/Autocamping/lhbTaAHGFOYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=flashlight pg 105
https://archive.org/details/sim_outdoor-life_1916-06_37_6/page/586/mode/2up?q=eveready+tungsten+flashlight
https://books.google.com/books?id=5qXQAAoGynwC&pg=PA35&dq=eveready+kerosene+lantern&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBgZXzzoqKAxXm5ckDHW8HKS8Q6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=eveready%20kerosene%20lantern&f=false see pg 35
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulton_MX991/U_Flashlight
https://americanhistory.si.edu/documentsgallery/exhibitions/appalachian_trail_1.html
https://archive.org/details/sim_progressive-farmer_1953-02_68_8 see pg 46
The Complete Walker 1968 pg 221-225
https://gotalight.net/lanterns.htm
https://www.dolphintorches.com/about/
https://www.google.com/books/edition/Teewinot/Sm5-lJmZAeQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mini+maglite+war&pg=PA32&printsec=frontcover
https://www.google.com/books/edition/Day_of_the_Rangers/8ThpDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mini+maglite+black+hawk+down&pg=PT240&printsec=frontcover
Ray Jardine, See his 1992 guide to hiking the PCT.
https://princetontec.com/about-history/
https://books.google.com/books?id=jpUs-DO5QkUC&pg=PA133&dq=headlamp+gaining+popularity&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj0wsbD85iKAxXCQTABHdCzFTsQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=headlamp%20gaining%20popularity&f=false
https://books.google.ie/books?id=3OEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA144&dq=LED+headlamp&hl=en&sa=X&ved=
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LuminAID?wprov=sfti1#
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/this-flashlight-is-powered-by-the-touch-of-your-hand-180950226/
Fire and Ice Cream: A History of Making Happier Campers by Bruce Johnson and Keith Jackson, Industrial Revolutions Inc, 2022.
"Gear We've Tried," Backpacker Magazine, June 1991, pg 68, accessed from https://books.google.com/books?id=geIDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&rview=1&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=false
Tuan C. Nguyen, "This Flashlight Is Powered by the Touch of Your Hand," Smithsonian Magazine, March 24, 2014, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/this-flashlight-is-powered-by-the-touch-of-your-hand-180950226/
Source of Coleman model years. https://intlccc.net/information/modelyear-reference/by-model/